Japan's Era in Taiwan: Effects of Assimilation
Mira Guo
MGuo03@sidwell.edu

            The beginning of the Meiji period in 1868 marked the first steps that Japan made toward imperialism.  In order to be able to participate in global politics on an equal par with Western powers, Japan slowly extended her territory, starting in 1895, with Taiwan.  One of the terms of the Sino-Japanese War, which ended in victory for Japan, was Japan's annexation of Taiwan, an island previously claimed by China.  Japanese rule in Taiwan lasted from this annexation in 1895 until Japan's defeat in World War II in 1945.  Although there were many political movements calling for reform and a Taiwanese parliament during the Japanese era, these were not signs of strong, militant anti-Japanese sentiment among the Taiwanese people of the time - as a result of industrial and economic development and public works on the part of the Japanese administration, the standard of living for Taiwanese was drastically raised, leading to pro-Japanese feelings on the part of many Taiwanese of the time.

Japan's Motives for the Annexation of Taiwan

            Though Japan had an expansionist policy for some time before the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the war was sparked when China sent troops to Korea in order to help the government put down the Tonghak Rebellion.  Since Japan's control of Korea would provide a foothold in mainland Asia, which Japan desperately needed to earn “acceptance by [the Western nations] . . . as an equal,”^[1] Japan also sent in troops and, after China's decisive defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, dictated the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The original terms of the treaty included the annexation of Taiwan and Pescadores by Japan; the lease of the Liaodong Peninsula, an area near Korea, by Japan; and a war indemnity given to Japan.  However, since Japan was forced to give up the Liaodong Peninsula by three Western powers, “Taiwan became the only tangible booty that [the government] could present to the Japanese^[2]  public, some of whom had wanted Manchuria, the lower Yangtze valley, and the Shandong peninsula to become Japanese territory as well.^[3]  Japan had not planned to annex Taiwan at the start of the Sino-Japanese War - she simply wanted to expand her empire, especially into China, and used Taiwan as a back-up territory in the event of foreign intervention, since Taiwan was the Chinese territory least likely to arouse foreign intervention.^[4]

Taiwanese History Before the Japanese Era

            Before the Japanese era, Taiwan had little experience of a central government.  Between 1683 and 1843, “there were fifteen major rebellions against”^[5]  the incompetent and decentralized Qing government.  Finally, in 1884, Beijing realized how militarily strategic Taiwan's geographic location was and sent Liu Ming-chuan to administrate the island.^[6]  Though Liu built up Taiwan's infrastructure, improved the economy, and raised the standard of living, he was recalled in 1891 and wealthy families reasserted control of the island in a warlord-like fashion.^[7]  When the Japanese came, there was plenty of room for improvement.  In the 17th century, the Dutch who controlled the island “started modern forms of commerce”,^[8] while Chinese immigrants brought new crops and farming techniques.  By the time Liu was sent to Taiwan, agricultural production had expanded to the point where all flat land was under cultivation.^[9]  However, even though he increased the production of many important exports, opened and renovated mines, and electrified Taipei, after his recall, Taiwan's economy stagnated for four years before the Japanese took over.^[10]   There was an immense disparity “in income and wealth, and the majority of the people were very poor.”^[11]

An Overview of the Effects of Japanese Governance

            Taiwan developed faster than it ever had before during the Japanese era.  The economy was boosted enormously and the average lifestyle was much better than it had been during periods of rule by other countries.  Factories were built, starting the industrial revolution.  In education, Japan also strove to raise school attendance and literacy levels. Indigenous culture was not suppressed as it was in other countries - the Taiwanese were allowed to practice indigenous customs, and they were taught about Chinese culture, just as were students in Japan.  As for the political treatment of Taiwan, Taiwanese were discriminated against only in the civil and military services.^[12]  Throughout the Japanese era, there were political movements for the advancement of Taiwanese culture, free speech,^[13]  and a parliament in Taiwan that could deal more effectively with Taiwanese needs.^[14]  There was political persecution on the part of the Japanese, but there was not much resentment because of this since the persecution reflected the norm of the early 20th century and general policy of Japan rather than anti-Taiwanese sentiment.

Economic Gain

            In the process of increasing Taiwanese exports and improving commerce for Japanese benefit, Japan set the stage for Taiwan's economy to boom.  Japan built up Taiwan's infrastructure, roads, harbors, railroads, power plants,^[15] and a sewage system^[16] were built by the Japanese.  The Japanese also built factories.  Capitalism was introduced, and Japanese capitalist companies competed in sugar and rice production with tenant farmers^[17] and “indigenous family farms and small-scale rice millers[, who] not only survived but thrived in competition with [the] Japanese”.^[18]  The government in Tokyo played an important role in boosting Taiwan's economy - the Japanese government allocated about 37.4 million yen for investment in Taiwan's development over a period of thirteen years, though after eight years, reception of this aid was discontinued by Taiwan. By 1905, 30.48 million yen had been used, enough to render Taiwan self-sufficient. ^[19]  Today, the original sum allotted would be worth US$20 billion, assuming a 6% annual appreciation index, which is a low estimate. Japan hoped to completely assimilate Taiwan eventually, which explains why the government put so much effort into developing Taiwan.

            This attention paid off - sugar production increased elevenfold over a period of fifteen years, and the production of rice, another important staple, also made a significant increase.  These staples were exported to Japan, creating a trade imbalance, though Taiwan did receive some revenue and was therefore not grossly exploited by Japan as it was later on by the Chinese.^[20]  Even so, economic production grew three times faster than the Taiwanese population.^[21]  The economy grew to the point where it was on the same level as Japan's, leading to a greatly improved quality of life; “by the 1920s the consumption of meat, vegetables, and fruits . . . was higher than that” anywhere in China, and "even higher than in some parts of Japan."^[22]  Also, "the death rate . . . dropped to 33 per 1000 in 1906, and to 19 per 1000 by 1940" due to better “hygienic measures introduced by the [Japanese] government”.^[23]  For example, before the Japanese takeover, there were only a few missionary hospitals, in southern Taiwan, but just thirteen days after Japanese soldiers entered Taipei on June 7^th, 1895, a hospital for civilians “with four Japanese army surgeons” was organized.^[24]

Industrial Gain

            Taiwan's industrial revolution occurred during the Japanese era.  Around the 1920's, construction and modernization of factories started, with "Japanese capital"”^[25] and technology helping the process.^[26]  High level Japanese personnel were sent to oversee the industrial revolution.  The construction of factories not only provided more jobs but also indirectly improved the quality of life for Taiwanese workers - Japanese companies financed factory hospitals and provided treatment for Japanese and Taiwanese workers alike free of charge. These hospitals, of course, provided even more jobs for Taiwanese.^[27] Although the "industries were owned and run almost entirely by Japanese, . . . Taiwanese workers and lower managers received training in skills that would later prove invaluable."^[28]  Naturally, Japan received the benefit of more Taiwanese exports, but the economy grew even faster as a result of industrialization, increasing in turn the standard of living for Taiwanese.

Education of Taiwanese Under a Japanese Government

            Some Japanese educational policies may on the surface seem repressive and discriminatory against the Taiwanese, but if the standards of the world a century ago are taken into account, many of these policies become reasonable.  Japan is shown in an even better light when the advances made thanks to the Japanese government in the education of the Taiwanese populace are considered.  Classes were taught entirely in kokugo, the national Japanese language.  Severe punishment of students who spoke in Taiwanese during class may sometimes be given as evidence of Japanese repression, but this is sometimes taken out of context; students who spoke at all during class would be punished, regardless of what language in which they had spoken.^[29]  As for inhumane punishments, these reflect Japanese standards more than prejudice; only six years ago, in Japan, a sixteen-year-old girl was punished for wearing a short skirt by her teacher so severely that she died.  Furthermore, when the teacher was given two years in prison, a petition for a lighter sentence was signed by 75,000 Japanese.^[30]

            Japanese policies’ positive effects far outweighed their negative effects.  Schools in Taiwan were far more advanced than those in China.  Japan had nearly "universal primary school education",^[31] and they brought this advantage to Taiwan.  Before 1895, the secular education system established by the Chinese only benefitted the wealthy, though there were also religious schools.  The Japanese government established ""common schools" for the Taiwanese . . . [that] taught modern science, Confucian morals, and Japanese language."  The first middle school for Taiwanese was founded in 1915.  Four years later, the integration of Japanese and Taiwanese schools occurred.  However, not many Taiwanese were able to pass the language proficiency level required for admittance into the Japanese schools.  For the same reason, when the Taipei Imperial University was founded in 1928, not many Taiwanese students were enrolled.  Despite these low numbers for higher education, in 1944, 71% of school-age children were enrolled in elementary schools, and an alternative to studying at the Taipei Imperial University taken by many well-off Taiwanese was to go to Japan, "where there were fewer ethnic quotas. . . . In 1922, at least 2400 Taiwanese were studying in Japan, and by 1942, that figure had tripled."^[32]

            In contrast to the racial identity of other non-Japanese peoples governed by Japan, Taiwanese culture and history was not suppressed.  In Japanese-run schools, Taiwanese students were taught Taiwanese geography and history as well as Chinese history, just as were Japanese school children.^[33]  Taiwanese students learned about the Dutch coming to 'Ilha Formosa', Koxinga, the Sino-Japanese War, and the Xi Lai An Incident.^[34]  They read Chinese poems, as did in students in Japan, as well as Taiwanese poems.^[35]  The Taiwanese were permitted to carry on local customs within their communities, such as guaahi, or gezixi in Chinese, the Taiwanese version of Chinese opera.^[36]

Political Tension

            The Taiwanese had not received ideal treatment at the hands of the Chinese government that ruled them before 1895.  A common saying was that Taiwan had "an uprising every three years and a revolt every five."^[37]  Thus, the Taiwanese harbored little resentment of the Japanese.  There was no hearkening back to the 'old times of self-rule' as there was in Korea because before, it "had little sense of national identity";^[38] there was no previous centralized government with which to compare the Japanese, so the Taiwanese view of the Japanese "depended . . . more on what they did than who they were"^[39] — and what they did raised them in the esteem of their subjects.

            The Japanese viewed the Taiwanese as inferior, but this feeling was because of superior achievement rather than superior race.  They wanted to exploit Taiwan to advance Japan, but also had the goal of raising Taiwan to an equal level for incorporation into Japan.^[40]  Japan established the two years between 1895 and 1897 as a "grace period" - any Taiwanese who did not "want to be a Japanese subject" under Japanese law could "have all the property [they could] take and "go back to China."^[41]  The Japanese administrator Goto Shimpei integrated an old village government system "with a modern centralized police system."^[42]  This police force included many Taiwanese who were paid quite well.  Compared to the size of the Taiwanese population, "there were fewer police in Taiwan than in Japan".^[43]  Another sign of Japan’s concern was that Japanese officials who went to Taiwan in 1895 were required to be able to converse in Taiwanese.^[44]

            Despite this cooperation, however, Taiwanese were treated as second-class 'nationals'.  For example, priority for employment was given to Japanese,^[45] who received 60% higher salaries in the civil service.^[46]  This resulted in Taiwanese working more as "free professionals"^[47] in privately run establishments.  However, part of this salary inflation can be accounted for as compensation for working away from home - Japanese often had to "support their families in Japan, [as well as] go back"^[48] to Japan to visit them, and so this discrimination can be likened to the present-day WTO sending employees to work overseas with compensation.  At any rate, it was taken for granted.  Discrimination would usually take place based on whether a person’s last name was Taiwanese or Japanese.^[49]  Taiwanese also incurred an advantage over Japanese, though they were not obliged to serve in the military.  Then, in 1941, the process of assimilation was accelerated to aid the war effort.  Taiwanese were allowed to take Japanese last names in order to make discrimination impossible,^[50] and in 1944, the 60% higher salary was abolished, though Taiwanese were no longer exempt from drafting.^[51]

            The Japanese government in Taiwan was not free from experiencing political movements against them during their era.  However, few of these enjoyed substantial popular support.  The Republic of Formosa declared in May of 1895^[52] by the Qing governor in Taiwan constituted token resistance and had no common support at all,^[53] since the Taiwanese "felt Japanese rule could not [be] worse"^[54] than the warlords who held sway at the time.^[55]  After a week, the general who led the movement escaped to China and his soldiers resorted to looting commoners.^[56]  By 1898, the Japanese military was no longer needed to maintain order.^[57]  The 1915 Xi Lai An Incident^[58] was led by a secret society formed by the former supporters of Zhen Cheng Gong, more commonly known as Koxinga.  When the Ming dynasty was overthrown, Koxinga, the son of a pirate in the employment of the Ming dynasty, took over Taiwan after driving out the Dutch and brought Ming supporters as well as other Chinese immigrants with him.  After his death, they formed a secret society for the recovery of the government.  Then, after the Japanese took over, they tried to foment unrest and rebellion, but were arrested.^[59]  Neither the Republic of Formosa nor the leaders of the Xi Lai An Incident enjoyed much popular support.

            After the Xi Lai An incident came a period of nonviolent political movements — the Assimilation Society, New People's Society, League for the Establishment of a Formosan Parliament, Taiwan Cultural Association, Popular Party, and League for the Attainment of Local Autonomy in Formosa^[60] all fought for "equal economic opportunity, legalization of mixed marriage, propagation of Japanese language, more emigration from Japan",^[61] "reforming the government-general,"^[62] free speech through a press published by these organizations,^[63] "creation of a parliament",^[64] and "promotion of native culture".^[65]  The third of these petitioned the Japanese Diet fifteen times over a period of thirteen years "for the creation of a parliament".^[66]  These petitions, however, were not signed by a prodigious amount of the Taiwanese populace.  This lack of immense popular support was caused by a tendency towards maintaining the status quo; most Taiwanese standard of living was quite good, even though its increase did not keep pace with the economic boom.^[67]  Even though the Taiwanese did want free speech, seventy years ago, by the standard of the time in Asia, it was not at all unusual not to have this right now considered basic and inalienable.^[68]  Even in Japan, there was a secret police and there was no free speech.^[69]"Also, many people did not realize "the importance of assembly and congress," so the lack of support was due more to lack of education and "ignorance" than to repression.^[70]  The Japanese obeyed the emperor as an ultimate, divine authority, so the dictatorial rule in Taiwan was not so much due to racism as it was to Japanese policy in general.

The Long-term Effects of the Japanese Era

            Due to the many accomplishments of the Japanese during their era in Taiwan, many Taiwanese today are extremely pro-Japanese and anti-Chinese.  This sentiment is not at all ameliorated by the mainland's present insistence on reunification, nor was it muted due to Chiang Kai-shek's treatment of the island after World War II.  In 1946, inflation went sky high and there was an enormous devaluation of the currency.  In 1945, the Taiwanese were using the same currency as the Japanese, though it was called the Taiwan dollar rather than the Japanese yen."Only two years after Japan's departure, due to the currency's devaluation, the government was forced to institute a new currency, the New Taiwan dollar, which was worth 40,000 Old Taiwan dollars.^[71]"This plummeting of the economy was caused both by Japan's abrupt withdrawal from Taiwan and by "ruinous economic policies resulting from [Chinese] leaders' preoccupation with the war against the Communists on the Mainland".^[72]"For example, buildings, public and private alike, were gutted so that all available metal could be sent to China." "Food shortages developed when large quantities of grain were appropriated to feed [the Chinese army]." Public health services", public works, "and the education system deteriorated." ^[73]  The image of the Chinese suffered even more when the Taiwanese were forced to speak Mandarin Chinese.^[74]

            Demonstrations in early 1947 were brutally suppressed, with about ten thousand people dead by the end of March.  These massacres are still remembered in Taiwan today as er er ba, or February 28^th, the day that the rebellion was sparked.  In the 1990's, a Taiwanese version of the South African Truth Commission was established to compensate the victims' families for their loss, with US$100,000 or more offered as an indemnity.  Memorials were also built.  Needless to say, this violent suppression resulted in strong Taiwanese resentment, and many felt that Japanese rule was much more desirable than Chinese rule.

            The Japanese era left much more positive marks than did Chiang Kai-shek’s regime.  "Most school systems still used [the] Japanese" ^[75] textbooks and language even after 1945, and economic and industrial growth after 1950 built upon Japan’s legacy of modernization, as did the further improvement of the quality of life.  Many older Taiwanese who grew up during the Japanese era are now still more comfortable speaking in Japanese than in Taiwanese.  An attentive observer may easily distinguish a Taiwanese person from a Chinese person based on their view of Japanese, a characteristic that is most indicative of the positive nature of the Japanese era.  Finally, the atmosphere of Japanese assimilation and nondemocratic rule was conducive to the birth of new political ideologies evidenced in political movements of the time.  These in turn were the seeds for today’s political atmosphere and signified the beginning of political thought in Taiwan.  It can be said that the philosophy upon which the present-day Taiwanese independence movement is based originated during the Japanese era.^[76]

Endnotes